Expanding Circle - Definition and Examples

Expanding Circle s The expanding circle is made up of countries in which English has no special administrative status but is recognized as a lingua franca and is widely studied as a foreign language. Countries in the expanding circle include China, Denmark, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Korea, and Sweden, among many others. According to linguist Diane Davies, recent research suggests that some countries in the Expanding Circle have . . . begun to develop distinctive ways of using English, with the result that the language has an increasingly important functional range in these countries and is also a marker of identity in some contexts (Varieties of Modern English: An Introduction, Routledge, 2013). The expanding circle is one of the three concentric circles of World English described by linguist Braj Kachru in Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism: The English Language in the Outer Circle (1985). The labels inner, outer, and expanding circles represent the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition, and the functional allocation of the English language in diverse cultural contexts. Although these labels are imprecise and in some ways misleading, many scholars would agree with Paul Bruthiaux that they offer a useful  shorthand  for classifying contexts of English world-wide   (Squaring the Circles in the International Journal of Applied Linguistics,  2003). Examples and Observations The spread of English in the Expanding Circle is largely a result of foreign language learning within the country. As in the Outer Circle, the range of proficiency in the language among the population is broad, with some having native-like fluency and others having only minimal familiarity with English. However, in the Expanding Circle, unlike the Outer Circle, there is no local model of English since the language does not have official status and, in Kachrus (1992) terms, has not become institutionalized with locally developed standards of use.(Sandra Lee McKay, Teaching English as an International Language: Rethinking Goals and Approaches. Oxford University Press, 2002)Expanding Circle English and Lingua Franca English- Despite the all-pervasive use of English throughout what many like to term the international community and despite countless anecdotes about emerging varieties such as Euro-English, professional linguists have so far shown only limited interest in describing lingua franca English as a legitimate language variety. The received wisdom seems to be that only when English is a majority first language or an official additional language does it warrant description. . . . Expanding Circle English is not deemed worthy of such attention: users of English who have learned the language as a foreign language are expected to conform to Inner Circle norms, even if using English constitutes an important part of their lived experience and personal identity. No right to rotten English for them, then. Quite the contrary: for Expanding Circle consumption, the main effort remains, as it has always been, to describe English as it is used among the British and American native speakers and then to distribute (Widdowson 1997: 139) the resulting descriptions to those who speak English in nonnative contexts around the world.(Barbara Seidlhofer and Jennifer Jenkins, English as a Lingua Franca and the Politics of Property. The Politics of English as a World Language, ed. by Christian Mair. Rodopi, 2003)- I argue . . . that a lingua franca model is the most sensible model in those common and varied contexts where the learners major reason for [studying] English is to communicate with other non-native speakers. . . . [U]ntil we are able to provide teachers and learners with adequate descriptions of lingua franca models, teachers and learners will have to continue to rely on either native-speaker or nativized models. We have seen how a native-speaker model, while appropriate for a minority of teachers and learners, is inappropriate for the majority for a range of linguistic, cultural and political reasons. A nativized model may be appropriate in Outer and in certain Expanding Circle countries, but this model also carries the disadvantage of cultural inappropriacy when learners require English as a lingua franca to communicate with other non-native speakers.(Andy Kirkpatrick, Which Model of English: Native-Speaker, Nativized, or Lingua Franca? English i n the World: Global Rules, Global Roles, ed. by Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni. Continuum, 2006) Also Known As: extending circle

Life and Art of Cindy Sherman, Feminist Photographer

Life and Art of Cindy Sherman, Feminist Photographer Cindy Sherman (born January 19, 1954) is an American photographer and filmmaker whose â€Å"Untitled Film Stills,† a series of photographs meant to evoke a still shot from a fictional movie, launched her to fame. Fast Facts: Cindy Sherman Occupation: Artist and photographerBorn: January 19, 1954 in Glen Ridge, New JerseyEducation: Buffalo State CollegeKnown For: Photographs exploring themes of feminism, image, subjugation, and superficialityKey Works:  Untitled Film Stills  series (1977-1980),  Centerfolds  series (1981) Sherman is well known for the insertion of her own image into her photographs, donning prosthetics, costume, and makeup to transform herself into the subject of her gaze. Often engaging themes of feminism, image, subjugation, and superficiality, Sherman continues to be sought after as a voice of critique in a media-based world. She is considered a member of the â€Å"Pictures Generation† of American artists, who came to prominence in the 1970s and 80s. Early Life and Family Cindy Sherman was born Cynthia Morris Sherman on January 19, 1954 in New Jersey. She grew up on Long Island and was the youngest of five children. Because the sibling closest to her age was nine years her senior, Sherman felt like an only child, sometimes forgotten in the midst of so many others in her family. Sherman has said that, as a result of her family dynamic, she sought attention in any way possible. From a very young age, Sherman donned alternate personas with the assistance of her extensive costume wardrome. She describes her mother as kind-hearted and â€Å"good,† though primarily concerned that her children make the right impression (something which tempted the young Sherman to rebel). She has described her father as mean-spirited and closed minded. Shermans family life was not happy, and when Sherman was 15 years old, her elder brother committed suicide. This trauma had repercussions for Sherman’s personal life, and she cites it as the reason she ended up in several long-term relationships she did not want to be in, believing she could help other men where she could not help her brother. She was married to the video artist Michel Auder for 17 years in the 1980s and 90s, a marriage which ended in divorce. Beginnings as an Artist Sherman studied art at Buffalo State College. After graduating, she moved to New York City with artist Robert Longo, who was a fellow art student and Buffalo State graduate. In the 1970s, New Yorks streets were gritty and sometimes unsafe. In response, Sherman developed attitudes and attires that acted as coping mechanisms for the discomforts she would meet on her way home- an extension of her childhood habit of dress-up. Though she found it upsetting and uncomfortable, Sherman ultimately saw New York as a place of reinvention. She began to show up to social occasions in costume, and eventually Longo convinced Sherman to begin photographing her characters. These were the beginnings from which the Untitled Stills were born, most of which were photographed in or around the apartment the two shared. In many ways, the rebellious spirit instilled in Sherman as a child never left her. For example, as her work was gaining popularity in the 1980s, the artist took a turn towards the grotesque, creating work that featured various bodily fluids spilled and smeared within the frame, as a way to challenge the art world’s perception of her as salable and appropriate to â€Å"hang above a dining room table.† In the 1990s, the National Endowment for the Arts withdrew its funding from â€Å"controversial† projects. As an act of protest against what she perceived to be a form of censorship, Sherman began to photograph outrageous portraits of genitals, using plastic hospital dummies and mannequins common to medical school classrooms. This type of subversion continues to define Sherman’s career. Untitled Film Stills Sherman works in series of photographs in which she builds off a theme that addresses a social issue. Her subjects have been wide-ranging as what it means to age as a woman, the subjugating effect of the male gaze on the female form, and the contorting effects of social media on self-image. Within each series, Sherman acts as the model, costumer, make-up artist, and set designer. The â€Å"Untitled Film Stills† (1977-1980) are arguably Sherman’s most famous works. These images, all in black and white, evoke key moments in Hollywood cinema. Though the â€Å"films† from which these photographs were taken do not exist, their appeal lies in the fact that they evoke moods played out ceaselessly in popular movies, thus causing the viewer to sense that he or she has seen the film before. Cindy Sherman, Untitled Film Still #17 (1978).   tate.org The tropes portrayed by Sherman include the young ingenue, dominated by the city, who gazes off in fear at an unknown person or object out of frame, and the outcast, standing among detritus and ruins, waiting for someone to arrive. Often, these images contain within them a threat and a feeling that nothing good can come of these situations. By inserting discomfort into images of women, Sherman asks the viewer to consider the subject and understand her vulnerability. Centerfolds and Later Work In the early 80s came the â€Å"Centerfolds,† a series of double-width images intended to mimic the typically seductive and alluring poses of models placed at the center of adult magazines. Sherman turned the concept of a centerfold on its head by using the format to depict women who had endured physical abuse. The images hold the viewer accountable for approaching the works as if they were designed to please- in Shermans words, they are a â€Å"thwarted expectation. Cindy Sherman, Untitled #92 (1981). Centerfolds series.   christies.org In 2017, Sherman made public her personal Instagram account, which serves as an extension of her practice. Sherman employs the tools of digital airbrushing- intended to falsely alter images of the human face to achieve the tool of flawlessness- and instead pushes these contortions to an extreme. Using applications intended to improve images, Sherman exaggerates features, thus drawing attention to the fine line between inhuman perfection (the type that only social media is capable of showing) and inhuman, almost alien-like alteration. In line with her popularity in the more traditional art world, Shermans account (cindysherman) has garnered hundreds of thousands of followers. Awards and Accolades Cindy Sherman is a widely honored artist. She has received both a MacArthur Genius Grant and a Guggenheim Fellowship. She is an honorary member of the Royal Academy, and has been represented in numerous biennials across the world. Sherman continues to be an important voice not only in contemporary art, but also in the media age. Her biting critique gets at the core of an issue and hyper-focuses on it through the poignant and intimate medium of portraiture. She lives in New York with her parrot, Frida, and is represented by Metro Pictures Gallery. Sources BBC (1994).  Nobodys Here But Me. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?vUXKNuWtXZ_U. (2012).Adams, T. (2016). Cindy Sherman: Why am I in these photos?.  The Guardian. [online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/jul/03/cindy-sherman-interview-retrospective-motivation.Russeth, A. (2017). Facetime with Cindy Sherman.  W. [online] Available at: https://www.wmagazine.com/story/cindy-sherman-instagram-selfie.

The representation of savagery and civilization Term Paper

The representation of savagery and civilization - Term Paper Example The American civilization for example, was a combination of European immigrant new technology in terms of superior weaponry farming and international trade technology. It therefore easily overpowered that native technology of bows, arrows and constant migration of Native American tribes. This paper sets out to distinguish between the concepts of savagery and civilization with reference to the contribution of a number of primary sources who have tackled this topic in the past. Perspectives of Primary Sources on Savagery and Civilization In the Descent of man, Darwin describes as native the communities that were to be found in the Western Frontier during the expansion of American rule. He makes the assertion that reproductive power is lower in barbarons or savages than in civilized people (Darwin 45). This was an attempt to compare a purely biological process [reproduction] in people who had attained different levels of civilization. It is clear from the argument in the paper that Darw in is actually talking about mortality rate or reproductive rate. This is because he goes further to argue that because of the poor living conditions, the barbarons have a lower rate of survival. However he goes further to allege that savages appear to be â€Å"less prolific that civilized people† (Darwin, 46). Among the reasons given for the low population levels among the savages are wars with neighbors, a tendency to wander from place to place that endangers the lives of infants, diseases, famine and lack of water. Darwin also states that infanticide is a major cause of depopulation since the savages would rather kill children, especially girls, in an attempt to keep down the population levels (Darwin, 46). Another great blight of colonialism was slavery. Arguments that some cultures were superior to others and civilized persons were much more superior to native savages fuelled the slave trade. This trade ensured that some people were subhuman as they had not undergone the full extent of development in the process of natural selection. According to Darwin certain humans were a sub species of the human species (Darwin 175). Humans therefore shamelessly traded in other humans like commodities. They owned them, made them work and then sold them up to other owners. However, Darwin’s allegations have since been challenged by later day scholars who termed some of Darwin’s assertions as inadequate, presumptive and not supported by irrefutable evidence. Among the scholars who disagree is Fredrick Jackson Turner who refers to the civilization of America as meeting of minds between the European settlers and the American native life (Turner, 3). He goes further to describe how the European had to adjust to the American life by planting corn, using the birch canoe to travel and even adopting the native Indian war cry in order to survive. He acknowledges that the European brought with him some superior technology including the gun and train, but the se alone were not enough for his survival as the environment proved too tough unless he adjusted (Turner, 4). According to him, therefore, it is the combination of cultures that brings about civilization rather than a single purist culture (Turner, 4). The contribution of these arguments towards colonialism was that colonists always argued that they were bringing forth a new